Results for “Indian philosophy”

Vedas

The Vedas are the oldest Sanskrit scriptures of Hinduism, orally composed in Vedic India and revered as śruti—“that which is heard”—forming the bedrock of Hindu philosophy, ritual, and cosmic worldview.

The concept of Advaita Vedanta

The **Upanishads

Bhagavad Gita

The **Bhagavad Gita** is a 700‑verse Hindu scripture that forms part of the Indian epic Mahabharata, presenting a dialogue between prince Arjuna and the god Krishna on duty, devotion, and the nature of reality.

The Bhagavad Gita**: An Ancient Indian Text

Karma (Hinduism)

** **Karma** in Hinduism is the doctrinal principle that every intentional action generates moral consequences which shape an individual’s present and future experiences, influencing the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsāra). **CONTENT:** **Karma** in Hinduism is the doctrinal principle that every intentional action generates moral consequences which shape an individual’s present and future experiences, influencing the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsāra). Rooted in the Vedic corpus and elaborated in the Upaniṣads, Bhagavad Gītā, and later philosophical schools, the concept functions as both an ethical law and a metaphysical mechanism that links deeds (kṛti) to outcomes (phala). While often rendered in popular discourse as “cause and effect,” Hindu karma is a nuanced system that distinguishes between accumulated, pending, and prospective actions, and integrates with the goals of dharma (righteousness), mokṣa (liberation), and the doctrine of reincarnation. The doctrine has been interpreted variously by the orthodox (āstika) schools—Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Vedānta, Mīmāṃsā—and by heterodox traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism, each adapting the core idea to their own soteriological frameworks. Scholars trace the earliest explicit references to karma to the Ṛg Veda’s “law of retribution” hymns (c. 1500–1200 BCE), but the fully developed theory appears in the Brāhmaṇas and early Upaniṣads (c. 800–500 BCE). By the classical period (c. 200 BCE–500 CE), the doctrine had become integral to Hindu cosmology, providing a moral explanation for the diversity of human conditions without invoking divine caprice. In the medieval era, commentarial works such as Śaṅkara’s *Brahma‑sūtra‑bhasya* and Rāmānuja’s *Śrī‑Bhāṣya* systematized karma within the broader metaphysics of Brahman and Vishnu, respectively, while the devotional (bhakti) movements emphasized divine grace (prasāda) as a means to transcend karmic bondage. The doctrine continues to influence contemporary Hindu practice, informing rites of passage, ethical prescriptions, and popular understandings of justice. Modern Hindu thinkers such as Swami Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi re‑interpreted karma in the context of social reform, emphasizing self‑effort (purushartha) and collective responsibility. ## Historical Development ### Vedic Foundations The earliest Vedic texts contain hymns that associate virtuous conduct with favorable outcomes and vice‑versa, yet they do not articulate a systematic law of moral causation. The *Ṛg Veda* (10.90.1) speaks of “the fruit of deeds” (phala‑kṛti), hinting at a proto‑karma notion. The later *Brahmana* literature expands this idea, linking ritual precision to cosmic order (ṛta) and suggesting that misdeeds disturb that order, resulting in misfortune. ### Upaniṣadic Elaboration The Upaniṣads (e.g., *Katha*, *Bṛhadāraṇyaka*) introduce a more philosophical articulation, describing karma as an invisible force that binds the soul (ātman) to the cycle of rebirth. The *Katha Upaniṣad* (1.2.15) famously declares, “As a man acts, so does he become,” establishing the ethical reciprocity that underlies later doctrinal formulations. ### Classical Sutra and Epic Periods The *Dharmasūtras* (c. 600 BCE) codify duties and prescribe penalties, embedding karma within a legal‑ethical framework. The *Mahābhārata* and *Rāmāyaṇa* narrate characters whose fortunes are directly attributed to past actions, reinforcing the moral logic for a lay audience. The *Bhagavad Gītā* (chapters 2–6) synthesizes karma with yoga, advocating *karma‑yoga* (selfless action) as a path to spiritual liberation while affirming that actions performed without attachment do not generate new karmic debt. ### Philosophical Schools - **Sāṃkhya** treats karma as a subtle material cause (prakṛti) that conditions the evolution of the three gunas. - **Yoga** (Patañjali’s *Yoga Sūtras*, 2nd c. CE) adopts the Sāṃkhya ontology but adds the practice of *kriyā* (action) as a means to purify karmic impressions (samskāras). - **Vedānta** (especially Advaita) interprets karma as a phenomenal overlay (avidyā) that obscures the non‑dual reality of Brahman; liberation entails the dissolution of karmic residues. - **Mīmāṃsā** focuses on the ritual efficacy of actions, viewing karma as the deterministic outcome of correctly performed Vedic rites. ## Types of Karma Hindu texts categorize karma into three principal classes, each with distinct temporal and ethical implications: 1. **Sañcita Karma** – the accumulated store of all past actions, both good and bad, residing in the subtle body (sūkṣma‑śarīra). It functions as a reservoir from which future experiences are drawn. 2. **Prārabdha Karma** – the portion of *sañcita* that has begun to fructify in the present life, determining the circumstances of birth, health, and major life events. It is considered immutable until the individual exhausts its effects. 3. **Āgāmi Karma** – the new actions performed in the current life that will bear fruit in subsequent incarnations. This type is mutable and can be altered through ethical conduct, devotion, and spiritual practice. Some traditions further distinguish **Vartamāna karma** (current actions) and **Kriyamāna karma** (actions in progress), emphasizing the dynamic nature of moral causation. ## Mechanism of Moral Causation ### The Subtle Body and Samskāras Karmic imprints are stored as *samskāras*—latent mental impressions—within the subtle body. These impressions condition future volitions, creating a feedback loop wherein past deeds shape present inclinations, which in turn generate new deeds. The *Yoga Sūtras* (2.1) describe this process as “the modification of the mind‑stream (citta‑vṛtti) by past impressions.” ### Law of Cause and Effect (Niyama) The *Niyama* (natural law) of karma operates without divine arbitration; it is impersonal and inexorable. Texts such as the *Mahābhārata* (Anuśāsana Parva) assert that “the law of karma is like fire; it consumes the fuel that is offered to it.” This deterministic aspect coexists with the doctrine of *śraddhā* (faith) and *prāyaścitta* (atonement), which provide mechanisms for mitigating adverse karmic results. ### Role of Divine Grace While karma is fundamentally self‑generated, many Hindu traditions acknowledge *īśvara* (personal deity) as a source of *prasāda* (grace) capable of alleviating karmic burden. The *Bhagavad Gītā* (9.30) states that “the supreme Lord can liberate a devotee from the results of all actions,” thereby integrating personal devotion with the impersonal law. ## Karma and Soteriology ### Connection to Samsāra Karma is the engine of *samsāra*, the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. The cumulative weight of *sañcita* karma determines the quality of future existences, while *prārabdha* karma fixes the present life’s parameters. Liberation (*mokṣa*) is achieved when the soul transcends all karmic residues, either through knowledge (*jnana*), devotion (*bhakti*), or disciplined action (*karma‑yoga*). ### Paths to Liberation - **Karma‑yoga**: Performing duty without attachment, thereby preventing the creation of new *āgāmi* karma. - **Bhakti‑yoga**: Surrender to a personal deity, invoking divine grace to dissolve existing karmic bonds. - **Jnana‑yoga**: Realizing the non‑dual nature of the self, which nullifies the substrate that holds karmic impressions. Classical commentaries (e.g., Śaṅkara’s *Viveka‑chudamani*) argue that while knowledge alone can eradicate *sañcita* karma, *prārabdha* karma persists until the body ceases to exist, after which liberation is complete. ## Contemporary Interpretations Modern Hindu reformers have re‑contextualized karma to address social and ethical concerns. Mahatma Gandhi employed the principle to advocate *ahimsa* (non‑violence), arguing that violent actions generate destructive karmic cycles for both individual and nation. Swami Vivekananda emphasized *karma* as a means of self‑empowerment, encouraging active service (*karma‑seva*) as a spiritual practice. In diaspora communities, the concept often informs ethical decision‑making in professional and familial contexts, sometimes merging with Western notions of personal responsibility. Academic scholarship continues to explore karma’s interdisciplinary relevance, linking it to psychology (e.g., the concept of *samskaric conditioning*), environmental ethics (the idea that collective actions affect planetary health), and comparative religion (parallels with Buddhist *vipāka* and Jain *āśoka*). **INFOBOX:** - Name: Karma (Hinduism) - Type: Doctrinal principle / ethical law - Date: Formulated between c. 800 BCE and c. 200 CE (classical development) - Location: Indian subcontinent (originating in Vedic tradition) - Known For: Explaining moral causation, underpinning samsāra, guiding paths to mokṣa **TAGS:** Hinduism, karma, dharma, samsara, moksha, Vedic literature, Indian philosophy, ethics