Results for “Planetary Science”
Lima
Lima is the capital and largest city of Peru, a vibrant metropolis situated in the heart of the country's central coastal desert, boasting a rich cultural heritage and a strong economic presence. ## Overview Located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac, and Lurín Rivers, Lima is a sprawling metropolis that stretches along the Pacific coast of Peru. The city's unique geography, nestled between the Andes Mountains and the ocean, has shaped its history, culture, and economy. With a population of over 10 million people, Lima is a primate city, accounting for nearly a third of Peru's total population. The city's strategic location has made it a hub for trade, commerce, and culture, earning it the title of the "City of Kings" and the "Gastronomic Capital of the Americas." Lima's landscape is a testament to its rich history, with a mix of colonial-era architecture, modern skyscrapers, and ancient ruins. The city's historic center, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, features stunning examples of Spanish colonial architecture, including the Plaza de Armas, the Cathedral of Lima, and the Government Palace. The city's vibrant cultural scene is reflected in its numerous museums, galleries, and festivals, which showcase Peruvian art, music, and cuisine. ## History/Background Lima's history dates back to the pre-Columbian era, when the area was inhabited by the indigenous Lima culture. In 1535, the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro founded the city, which he named "Ciudad de los Reyes" (City of Kings). The city quickly grew into a major commercial center, thanks to its strategic location and access to the Pacific Ocean. During the colonial period, Lima became the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru, a vast administrative region that spanned much of South America. In the 19th century, Lima experienced a period of rapid growth and modernization, driven by the country's coffee and sugar industries. The city's economy continued to thrive in the 20th century, with the discovery of oil and natural gas reserves in the 1970s. Today, Lima is a major hub for international trade and commerce, with a strong focus on finance, technology, and tourism. ## Key Information * **Population:** Over 10 million people * **Area:** 2,819.1 km² (1,089.6 sq mi) * **Elevation:** 0-1,000 meters (0-3,300 ft) above sea level * **Climate:** Desert climate, with mild winters and hot summers * **Language:** Spanish (official), Quechua, and Aymara (indigenous languages) * **Currency:** Peruvian sol (PEN) * **Time zone:** UTC-5 (PET) ## Significance Lima's significance extends far beyond its role as the capital of Peru. As a major hub for international trade and commerce, the city plays a critical role in the global economy. Its strategic location and access to the Pacific Ocean make it an important center for shipping and logistics. The city's rich cultural heritage, including its cuisine, music, and art, has made it a popular destination for tourists from around the world. In addition to its economic and cultural significance, Lima is also a major center for education and research. The city is home to several top-ranked universities, including the National University of San Marcos and the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru. The city's research institutions, including the Peruvian Academy of Sciences and the National Institute of Health, are also major contributors to the country's scientific and technological development. INFOBOX: - Name: **Lima** - Type: **Capital city and primate city** - Date: **1535 (founded)** - Location: **Central coastal desert of Peru, overlooking the Pacific Ocean** - Known For: **Rich cultural heritage, gastronomic capital of the Americas, major hub for international trade and commerce** TAGS: **Capital city, primate city, cultural heritage, gastronomy, international trade, commerce, tourism, education, research, science, technology**
GeographyZhangjiajie National Park
Zhangjiajie National Park, located in Hunan Province, China, is a breathtaking natural wonder and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, famous for its towering sandstone pillars and lush vegetation. ## Overview Zhangjiajie National Park is a stunning natural wonder situated in the Wuling Mountains of Hunan Province, China. The park is a testament to the region's unique geological history, featuring towering sandstone pillars that rise dramatically from the ground, shrouded in mist and lush vegetation. The park's landscape has been shaped by millions of years of erosion, creating a surreal and breathtaking environment that has captivated visitors from around the world. With an area of approximately 4,556 square kilometers, Zhangjiajie National Park is a vast and diverse ecosystem, home to a wide range of flora and fauna. The park's unique landscape has been the inspiration for many artists, writers, and filmmakers, including the famous science fiction novel "Avatar" by James Cameron, which was heavily influenced by the park's scenery. Visitors to the park can explore the towering pillars, hike through the lush forests, and experience the rich cultural heritage of the region. With its breathtaking natural beauty and rich cultural significance, Zhangjiajie National Park is a must-visit destination for anyone interested in exploring the natural wonders of China. ## History/Background The history of Zhangjiajie National Park dates back to the Paleozoic Era, when the region was formed through a combination of tectonic activity and erosion. Over millions of years, the sandstone pillars were shaped and sculpted by the forces of nature, creating the unique landscape that exists today. The park has been home to a variety of human cultures, including the Tujia and Miao ethnic minorities, who have lived in the region for centuries. The park's rich cultural heritage is reflected in the many ancient temples, villages, and traditional festivals that can be found throughout the region. In 1982, Zhangjiajie National Park was designated as a national park, and in 1992, it was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The park has since become a major tourist destination, attracting visitors from around the world who come to experience its breathtaking natural beauty and rich cultural heritage. ## Key Information * **Area:** 4,556 square kilometers * **Elevation:** 300-1,500 meters above sea level * **Climate:** Humid subtropical climate with four distinct seasons * **Vegetation:** Lush forests of bamboo, oak, and pine * **Fauna:** Over 300 species of birds, 100 species of mammals, and 50 species of reptiles * **Population:** Approximately 1.5 million people live in the surrounding area * **Language:** Mandarin Chinese, Tujia, and Miao languages spoken in the region ## Significance Zhangjiajie National Park is significant for a number of reasons. Firstly, it is a unique and breathtaking natural wonder that has captivated visitors from around the world. The park's towering sandstone pillars and lush vegetation have inspired countless artists, writers, and filmmakers, and have become an iconic symbol of China's natural beauty. Secondly, the park is an important cultural and spiritual site, home to a rich and diverse range of human cultures and traditions. Finally, the park is an important conservation site, protecting a vast and diverse ecosystem that is home to a wide range of flora and fauna. INFOBOX: - Name: Zhangjiajie National Park - Type: National Park - Date: 1982 (designated as a national park), 1992 (designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site) - Location: Hunan Province, China - Known For: Unique sandstone pillars and lush vegetation, rich cultural heritage, and diverse ecosystem TAGS: **National Park**, **UNESCO World Heritage Site**, **China**, **Hunan Province**, **Sandstone Pillars**, **Lush Vegetation**, **Cultural Heritage**, **Conservation**, **Biodiversity**
Arts & CulturePointillism
**Pointillism** is a painting technique in which small, distinct dots of pure color are applied in patterns to form an image, relying on the viewer’s eye to optically blend the hues.
Economics & BusinessGlaxoSmithKline
GlaxoSmithKline plc is a British multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology company headquartered in London, known for developing prescription medicines, vaccines, and consumer health products.
Arts & CultureAnime
** Anime is a style of Japanese animated entertainment that originated in the early 20th century and has evolved into a globally influential medium encompassing television series, films, and digital content. **CONTENT:** **Anime** is a distinctive form of Japanese animation that emerged from experimental short films in the 1910s and developed into a prolific industry spanning television, cinema, and online platforms. Characterized by stylized artwork, dynamic storytelling, and a wide range of genres, anime reflects Japan’s cultural, technological, and economic shifts across more than a century. From the pioneering works of Ōfuji and Tsuburaya to the worldwide phenomenon of series such as *Neon Genesis Evangelion* and *Demon Slayer*, the medium has continually reinvented itself, influencing visual aesthetics, music, fashion, and fan cultures worldwide. This article surveys the historical phases of anime, its production practices, major creators, sociocultural impact, and ongoing debates concerning representation and industry sustainability. The evolution of anime is closely linked to Japan’s broader media landscape, including the rise of manga, the post‑war economic miracle, and the digital revolution of the 21st century. Early experimental shorts gave way to serialized television programming in the 1960s, while the 1980s saw a surge in original video animation (OVA) and feature films that pushed artistic boundaries. The 1990s and 2000s marked a period of international expansion, facilitated by satellite broadcasting, DVD distribution, and later streaming services. Contemporary anime operates within a complex ecosystem of studios, production committees, and global fan networks, raising questions about labor conditions, intellectual‑property management, and cultural appropriation. ## Early Origins and Experimental Foundations (1910s–1950s) The first known Japanese animated works appeared in 1917, when pioneers such as **Jun'ichi Kōuchi**, **Seitarō Kitayama**, and **Ōfuji Shōhei** produced short silent films using hand‑drawn cel techniques imported from the United States and Europe. These early pieces, often only a few minutes long, were exhibited alongside newsreels and served as novelty attractions rather than narrative-driven entertainment. During the 1930s, the government encouraged animation for propaganda purposes; notable examples include *Momotarō’s Divine Sea Warriors* (1945), directed by **Kenzo Masaoka**, which combined wartime messaging with sophisticated animation methods such as limited animation and multi-plane cameras. Post‑war occupation introduced American cartoons, exposing Japanese animators to Disney’s full‑color, synchronized sound productions and prompting technical upgrades in studios like **Toei Animation**, founded in 1948. ## Television Era and the Birth of Modern Anime (1960s–1970s) The launch of **NHK**’s television service in 1953 created a new distribution channel for animated content. In 1963, **Osamu Tezuka**, often called the “Godfather of Manga,” produced *Astro Boy* (original title *Tetsuwan Atomu*), the first Japanese series broadcast in a serialized television format. Tezuka’s “limited animation” approach—reusing backgrounds and employing economical motion cycles—reduced production costs and established a visual language that persists in contemporary anime. Following *Astro Boy*, studios such as **Mushi Production**, **Toei Animation**, and **Tatsunoko Production** released genre‑defining series: *Kimba the White Lion* (1965), *Speed Racer* (*Mach GoGoGo*, 1967), and *Gatchaman* (1972). These programs blended heroic narratives with futuristic technology, reflecting Japan’s rapid industrialization and the public’s fascination with space exploration. The 1970s also saw the emergence of **mecha** (giant robot) anime, exemplified by *Mobile Suit Gundam* (1979), which introduced complex political themes and realistic mechanical designs, influencing both domestic and overseas science‑fiction media. ### The Rise of Original Video Animation (OVA) The home video market’s expansion in the early 1980s gave rise to the **OVA** format, allowing creators to produce content without the constraints of broadcast standards or advertising schedules. *Dallos* (1983), credited as the first OVA, demonstrated the commercial viability of direct‑to‑video releases. OVAs such as *Bubblegum Crisis* (1987) and *Gunbuster* (1988) catered to niche adult audiences, experimenting with mature themes, graphic violence, and intricate plotlines that would later inform mainstream series. ## The 1980s Boom and International Breakthrough (1980s–1990s) The 1980s marked a period of artistic and commercial flourishing. **Hayao Miyazaki** and **Isao Takahata**, co‑founders of **Studio Ghibli**, released critically acclaimed feature films including *Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind* (1984), *My Neighbor Totoro* (1988), and *Princess Mononoke* (1997). Ghibli’s emphasis on hand‑drawn artistry, ecological storytelling, and strong female protagonists elevated anime’s reputation beyond children’s entertainment. Simultaneously, the **economic bubble** enabled larger budgets for television series. *Akira* (1988), directed by **Katsuhiro Otomo**, showcased unprecedented animation quality and dystopian cyberpunk aesthetics, influencing Hollywood productions such as *The Matrix* (1999). The film’s success in Western festivals introduced anime to a broader international audience, paving the way for subsequent imports. The 1990s witnessed the “**anime boom**” in North America and Europe, driven by localized releases of series like *Sailor Moon* (1992), *Dragon Ball Z* (1996), and *Pokémon* (1997). Satellite channels (e.g., **Cartoon Network’s Toonami**) and the proliferation of DVD technology facilitated mass distribution. By 1999, the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry reported that anime exports generated ¥70 billion (approximately US$600 million) in revenue. ## Digital Revolution and Global Streaming (2000s–Present) The transition to digital animation in the early 2000s reduced production time and costs, allowing studios to integrate computer‑generated imagery (CGI) with traditional cel techniques. Notable examples include *Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence* (2004) and *Your Name* (2016), the latter becoming the highest‑grossing anime film worldwide with ¥25 billion (US$230 million) in box‑office receipts. Streaming platforms such as **Netflix**, **Crunchyroll**, and **Amazon Prime Video** have reshaped distribution models. By 2023, Crunchyroll reported over 120 million registered users, and Netflix invested more than US$500 million in original anime productions, including *Devilman Crybaby* (2018) and *Baki* (2020). This shift has accelerated “simul‑casting,” where episodes are subtitled and dubbed within hours of Japanese broadcast, fostering a more immediate global fan experience. ### Production Committee System Modern anime is typically financed through a **production committee**—a consortium of animation studios, broadcasters, music labels, merchandise firms, and publishers that share risk and profit. While this model diversifies funding sources, critics argue it can dilute creative control and prioritize marketable franchises over experimental works. The system also contributes to the prevalence of **“seasonal”** series (12–13 episodes) designed for rapid turnover and merchandise cycles. ## Cultural Impact, Criticism, and Ongoing Debates Anime’s influence extends beyond entertainment into fashion, tourism, and academic discourse. Cities such as **Akihabara** and **Ōdaiba** have become pilgrimage sites for fans, while regional governments leverage anime tourism (e.g., the “Ghibli Museum” in Mitaka). Academic fields such as **Japanese Studies** and **Media Studies** examine anime’s role in constructing national identity, gender norms, and transnational fandom. Criticism focuses on several recurring issues: * **Representation:** Certain series have been scrutinized for stereotypical portrayals of gender, sexuality, and ethnic minorities. The “**moe**” aesthetic, emphasizing youthful innocence, has sparked debate over its implications for gender dynamics. * **Labor Practices:** Reports of long working hours, low wages, and “**anime crunch**” culture have prompted calls for industry reform. A 2021 survey by the **Japan Animation Creators Association** indicated that 68 % of animators worked overtime without overtime pay. * **Intellectual‑Property Enforcement:** Online piracy remains a significant challenge; the **Anime Industry Association** estimated losses of ¥30 billion (US ≈ $270 million) annually due to illegal streaming. Conversely, anime’s capacity for artistic innovation continues to inspire creators worldwide. Collaborative projects such as *The Animatrix* (2003) and *Star Wars: Visions* (2021) illustrate cross‑cultural exchanges, while emerging technologies like **virtual reality** and **AI‑assisted animation** hint at future evolutions of the medium. **INFOBOX:** - Name: Anime - Type: Japanese animated medium (television, film, OVA, web series) - Date: Originated early 1910s; modern industry established 1963 - Location: Japan (primary production), global distribution - Known For: Stylized visual art, diverse genres, influential global pop‑culture phenomenon **TAGS:** anime, Japanese animation, manga, television, film, pop culture, otaku, digital media
Arts & CultureWestern (genre)
The **Western (genre)** is a film, literary, and artistic genre that dramatizes the American frontier, evolving from 19th‑century dime novels to contemporary neo‑Western narratives across global media.
Economics & BusinessDigital economics
**Digital economics** refers to the study of the economic aspects and implications of digital technologies, including the internet, digital platforms, and digital goods and services. **Digital economics** is the study of the economic aspects and implications of digital technologies, including the internet, digital platforms, and digital goods and services. This field of study examines how digital technologies have transformed the way businesses operate, how individuals interact with each other and with businesses, and how governments regulate and participate in the digital economy. The rise of digital technologies has led to the creation of new industries, new business models, and new forms of employment, and has also raised important questions about the impact of digitalization on traditional industries, employment, and society as a whole. The study of digital economics draws on a range of disciplines, including economics, sociology, psychology, and computer science, and involves the use of a range of methodologies, including empirical analysis, theoretical modeling, and case studies. Digital economics is a rapidly evolving field, and its scope and focus are continually expanding as new digital technologies emerge and as the digital economy continues to grow and develop. The study of digital economics is important because it helps us to understand the opportunities and challenges presented by digitalization, and to identify the policies and strategies that are needed to promote the development of the digital economy and to mitigate its negative consequences. Digital economics is also important because it provides a framework for analyzing the economic implications of digital technologies, and for evaluating the effectiveness of different policies and interventions. The field of digital economics is highly interdisciplinary, and it involves the collaboration of researchers and practitioners from a range of backgrounds and disciplines. This collaboration is essential for developing a comprehensive understanding of the digital economy and for identifying the most effective ways to promote its development and to address its challenges. The development of digital economics as a field of study has been driven by the rapid growth and evolution of the digital economy. The digital economy has created new opportunities for businesses, individuals, and governments, but it has also raised important questions about the impact of digitalization on traditional industries, employment, and society as a whole. The study of digital economics helps us to understand these opportunities and challenges, and to identify the policies and strategies that are needed to promote the development of the digital economy and to mitigate its negative consequences. The field of digital economics is continually evolving, and its scope and focus are expanding as new digital technologies emerge and as the digital economy continues to grow and develop. ## History of Digital Economics The study of digital economics has its roots in the 1990s, when the internet and other digital technologies began to emerge as major forces in the economy. The first wave of research on digital economics focused on the impact of the internet on businesses and industries, and on the potential of digital technologies to create new opportunities for economic growth and development. This early research was driven by the work of economists such as **Hal Varian** and **Carl Shapiro**, who wrote one of the first books on the economics of the internet. The study of digital economics has continued to evolve and expand since the 1990s, with new areas of research emerging as new digital technologies have emerged. ## Key Concepts in Digital Economics Digital economics involves the study of a range of key concepts, including **network effects**, **platform economics**, and **digital goods and services**. Network effects refer to the ways in which the value of a digital product or service increases as more people use it. Platform economics refers to the study of the economic aspects of digital platforms, including the ways in which they create value for users and the ways in which they are governed and regulated. Digital goods and services refer to the products and services that are created and delivered digitally, such as software, music, and movies. These concepts are central to the study of digital economics, and they are used to analyze the economic implications of digital technologies and to evaluate the effectiveness of different policies and interventions. ## Applications of Digital Economics The study of digital economics has a range of important applications, including the development of **digital business models**, the creation of **digital jobs and skills**, and the promotion of **digital inclusion and access**. Digital business models refer to the ways in which businesses use digital technologies to create value and to deliver products and services to customers. Digital jobs and skills refer to the new forms of employment and the new skills that are needed to work in the digital economy. Digital inclusion and access refer to the ways in which digital technologies can be used to promote social and economic inclusion, and to provide access to opportunities and services for disadvantaged groups. The study of digital economics helps us to understand these applications, and to identify the policies and strategies that are needed to promote the development of the digital economy and to address its challenges. ## Criticisms and Controversies The study of digital economics has been subject to a range of criticisms and controversies, including concerns about the **digital divide**, the **impact of automation on employment**, and the **regulation of digital platforms**. The digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to digital technologies and those who do not, and it is a major challenge for the development of the digital economy. The impact of automation on employment is a major concern, as it has the potential to displace jobs and to exacerbate inequality. The regulation of digital platforms is also a major challenge, as it requires balancing the need to promote innovation and competition with the need to protect consumers and to promote social and economic inclusion. The study of digital economics helps us to understand these criticisms and controversies, and to identify the policies and strategies that are needed to address them. INFOBOX: - Name: Digital Economics - Type: Field of study - Date: 1990s - Location: Global - Known For: Study of the economic aspects and implications of digital technologies TAGS: digital economy, digital technologies, network effects, platform economics, digital goods and services, digital business models, digital jobs and skills, digital inclusion and access, digital divide, automation, regulation of digital platforms
Economics & BusinessEvolutionary economics
**Evolutionary economics** is a heterodox approach to economic theory that studies the processes of economic change and development using concepts drawn from evolutionary biology, complex systems, and dynamic adaptation.
Arts & CultureHistory of anime
The History of anime traces the development of Japanese animation from its earliest experimental films in the early 20th century to its current status as a global cultural and economic force.
Arts & CultureMartial arts film
A martial arts film is a cinematic genre that foregrounds hand-to-hand combat, weaponry, and martial arts techniques as central narrative and visual elements.
MathematicsCalculus
Calculus is a branch of mathematics that deals with the study of continuous change, particularly in the context of functions and limits.
MathematicsGeometry
Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. Geometry is, along with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. A mathematician who works in th
TechnologyMachine Learning
Machine learning is a transformative branch of artificial intelligence that enables systems to learn from data, driving innovations in healthcare, finance, and technology by automating decision-making and pattern recognition.
PeopleLinus Torvalds
Linus Torvalds is the Finnish-American engineer who unleashed the Linux kernel on the world in 1991, accidentally sparking the open-source revolution that now powers 100 % of the world’s top 500 supercomputers and 70 % of all smartphones.
PeopleLeonhard Euler
Leonhard Euler was the most prolific mathematician of all time whose ideas—ranging from the bridges of Königsberg to the orbits of planets—still power today’s GPS, computer chips, and musical tuning systems.
PeopleGalileo Galilei
The Italian polymath who turned a telescope skyward in 1609 and single-handedly shattered two thousand years of cosmic dogma—launching modern science in the process.
TechnologyArtificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the science of creating machines capable of performing tasks requiring human-like intelligence, revolutionizing industries from healthcare to finance and reshaping society’s relationship with technology.
PeopleRosalind Franklin
Rosalind Franklin was the British X-ray crystallographer whose **Photograph 51** revealed DNA’s double-helix structure in 1953, yet died four years before the Nobel Prize was awarded without her.
PeopleEuclid
Euclid is the ancient Greek mathematician whose 13-book treatise *Elements* became the world’s longest-running textbook, forging the logical blueprint of space that every student still meets in geometry class.
PeopleCarl Friedrich Gauss
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) was the “Prince of Mathematicians” whose ideas still power your GPS, bank encryption, and the way we draw maps.